Global citizenship and religion - Charlotte Alfred

Fundamentalist groups from many religions exploit the tensions and misunderstandings between different religious communities. State rhetoric, laced with religious symbolism, is used to justify conflict. Looking at the world around us, religion appears to be the main blockade to inter-cultural understanding and responsibility; the basis of global citizenship.

Is there a fundamental exclusivity to the major world religions that precludes believers from ever acting as an equal citizen in the global community? Does the religious ‘other’ become a cultural, political and economic ‘other’ fragmenting the global society everyone else is trying to build?

The conflicting currents of universalism and exclusivism run through all major religious traditions. Judaism is often used to highlight the latter, as the Old Testament describes Jews as a chosen people, who have a unique covenant with God. Yet a key value of liberal Judaism is “an awareness of our duty not only to the Jewish people and to the State of Israel, but also to the entire human family, each one of whom is created in the Divine image”. This is not just a modern or ‘liberal’ way of thinking. The 12th century Jewish rabbi and philosopher Maimonides described any who have knowledge of God, and abide by the Noahide laws (for example against murder and theft) as ‘the righteous among the gentiles’.

There are many examples of religious groups with a strong universal and inclusive outlook. Trinitarian Universalists believe in universal salvation while affirming the doctrine of the Trinity, whilst Unitarian Universalism, which stemmed from Protestantism, is a wholly inclusive religion, embracing different creeds, atheists and agnostics in their spiritual outlook. Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi, crucial Hindu figures, were exponents of the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara, which described different levels of truth, and extended validity to both personal and impersonal concepts of God.

Debate on these issues is found within most religious traditions. Pluralistic attitudes towards other faiths support the idea of one global community with different traditions but the same truth. However, for many, especially theistic, religions, a particular revelation or concept of God is the sole and absolute truth. The spiritual status of people of other faiths, or atheists, is deeply contested within each tradition, and there is not room to discuss these theological debates here. However religious responses to current global issues, such as environmental responsibility and human rights, say a lot about how far their sphere of moral responsibility extends. What have these responses been in Muslim and Hindu thought (India’s two largest faiths)?

The Environment

Environmental damage is an important reminder of the necessity of acting with the world in mind; as a global citizen. We all have duty towards our shared world eco-system, that will thrive or collapse as a result of the actions of each individual. For Muslims this is not just a commonsense notion but a duty to God. Allah has appointed humankind ‘khalifah’ (successor/steward) over His creation. This responsibility is called ‘al-amanah’ (the Trust) and man will be held accountable to it at the day of Judgement. In the Qu’ran God warns about disturbing the natural balance that He has put in place, saying “Do no mischief on the earth after it hath been set in order” (7:56). This theology is lived out in practice. Shari’ah (Islamic law) designates haram zones, used to contain urban development in protection of natural resources, and hima, which are specific conservation areas. The core concepts in Islam, submission (islam in Arabic) and the Unity of God (tawhid) necessitates a global responsibility to all of God’s creation. This is God’s intention for us, we were created as global citizens as “His Unity is also reflected in the unity of mankind, and the unity of man and nature”.

Hinduism contains within it a great many different beliefs, so it is hard to generalise a ‘Hindu approach’ to the environment. However, looking at some of the main Hindu concepts, moksa is the idea of liberation from the world of suffering, yet one must do their duty, dharma, when in the world. Many Hindu traditions name rivers, mountains and forests as sacred, as are particular animals, as God is manifest in the whole natural world that he created. Particular gods may be associated with the environment. The goddess Kali, a fierce Hindu goddess is identified with Gaia, the inner spirit of the earth, who is responsible for the terrible forces of nature, as we have disturbed her natural balance . India has over 950 environmental NGOs, the world’s largest environmental movement, testament to the contribution that Hindu ecological theory has had to appreciation of our global responsibilities.

Human Rights

The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights is based on the conviction that every member of the global community has certain rights. It is universal as every individual has the right to the things set out in the Declaration, and the responsibility to ensure that others’ rights are safeguarded. Religions, already global movements, contain moral imperatives that are universal, and applicable to all their adherents, wherever in the globe they may be. But do they extend beyond their members? Do Islam and Hinduism reinforce or threaten universal human rights?

The concept of human rights (and the concept of global citizenship) has faced accusation of being a Western model, with imperialist undertones. In 1990 Asian leaders questioned the common values stated in the Declaration, highlighting the importance of community above individualism in their cultures, and called for a revision of the charter. The Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam, produced the same year, supported rights with the Qur’an and Islamic law. However it has been accused of damaging certain rights, for example women are given ‘equal dignity’ but the responsibility to support the family is placed on the man. Asian activists have called ‘alternative rights’ an excuse for human rights abuses. These issues sometimes appear to be more about international politics than theological debate. It is more useful to look at Islamic and Hindu tradition to find support or discord with the idea of universal rights.

The veil - a symbolic barrier?

Both the Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet, the two most important Muslim sources, provide for rights to life and property, legal equality, religious freedom and socio-economic rights. It is universal in theology; there is no chosen people and humanity has a common destiny. The same ethical standards apply to all of God’s creatures. A just political system and moral social behaviour is necessary in order that God’s will may be expressed on Earth. As the completion of the Judaeo-Christian tradition, Islam was founded on the principle of religious toleration, and there are many examples of this in practice that are remarkable for their time in history. When Spain was ruled by the Muslim Moors (from the 8th to the 15th century), Christians, Jews and Muslims all worshipped freely alongside one another. Later, Jews fleeing persecution at hands of the Catholics in Spain in 1492 were offered asylum in the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Islam was always seen as universal in scope, and even with the advent of nation states the trans-national ‘umma’ (Muslim community) is prioritised in Muslim thought. These universalist concepts influence Muslim belief in common humanity and social obligation for example ‘Islamic relief’ an international relief and development charity. Its website describes its work to “promote sustainable economic and social development by working with local communities - regardless of race, religion or gender”. In 1998 Islamic legal scholars and UN officials held a conference called ‘Enriching the universality of human rights: Islamic perspectives on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’. In her closing statement Mary Robinson, the High Commissioner for Human Rights declared “I have learned of the fundamental principles of Islam relating to the dignity of the human person, to the search for justice and the protection of the weak, solidarity, respect for other cultures and beliefs.”

The Hindu notion of an untouchable caste seems irreconcilable with universal rights. Gandhi famously rejected the idea of ‘the untouchables’ and discrimination on the basis of caste is illegal under Indian law. Despite a legal commitment to human rights HRW (Human Rights Watch) point out many areas where human rights abuse is a concern, for example the impunity of the police and security forces. The Hindu Human Rights Group explains their support for universal human rights as “it is in the spirit of Hindu Dharma, Hindu belief and action, that all are accorded with equity and respect, and that rights are not infringed”. In the Vedas (Hindu scripture from between 7th and 5th centuries BC) twenty niyamas and yamas (ethical do’s and don’ts) are prescribed. The seventh yama is compassion (daya) which enjoins Hindu to sympathise and assist all people, creatures and the earth itself. God is in everything, and a Hindu must have compassion on the world. For some Hindus, human rights are an expression of an ancient religious principle.

Religion has been attributed many roles in our modern global society. It is archaic and divisive in the discourse of the ‘clash of civilisations’ and terrorism. It is an expression of identity against the idea of national homogeneity and a cultural anchor against the forces of globalisation. But it is also an important moral and philosophical underpinning of the rights and responsibilities that come with global citizenship.